Practical Issues to Prevent Stroke Associated with Non-valvular Atrial Fibrillation (2024)

1. Ferro JM. Cardioembolic stroke: an update. Lancet Neurol. 2003;2:177–188. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

2. Arboix A, Alió J. Cardioembolic stroke: clinical features, specific cardiac disorders and prognosis. Curr Cardiol Rev. 2010;6:150. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

3. Eriksson SE, Olsson JE. Survival and recurrent strokes in patients with different subtypes of stroke: a fourteen-year follow-up study. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2001;12:171–180. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

4. Kolominsky-Rabas PL, Weber M, Gefeller O, Neundoerfer B, Heuschmann PU. Epidemiology of ischemic stroke subtypes according to toast criteria incidence, recurrence, and long-term survival in ischemic stroke subtypes: a population-based study. Stroke. 2001;32:2735–2740. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

5. Ferro JM. Brain embolism. J Neurol. 2003;250:139–147. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

6. Weir N. An update on cardioembolic stroke. Postgrad Med J. 2008;84:133–142. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

7. Arboix A, Vericat M, Pujades R, Massons J, Garcia-Eroles L, Oliveres M. Cardioembolic infarction in the sagrat cor-alianza hospital of barcelona stroke registry. Acta Neurol Scand. 1997;96:407–412. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

8. Bogousslavsky J, Van Melle G, Regli F. The lausanne stroke registry: analysis of 1,000 consecutive patients with first stroke. Stroke. 1988;19:1083–1092. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

9. Timsit S, Sacco R, Mohr J, Foulkes M, Tatemichi T, Wolf P, et al. Brain infarction severity differs according to cardiac or arterial embolic source. Neurology. 1993;43:728–733. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

10. Al-Rajeh S, Larbi E, Bademosi O, Awada A, Ismail H, Al-Freihi H, et al. Stroke in a tertiary hospital in saudi arabia: a study of 372 cases. Eur Neurol. 1991;31:251–256. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

11. Rothrock JF, Lyden PD, Brody ML, Taft-Alvarez B, Kelly N, Mayer J, et al. The University of California, San Diego, Stroke Data Bank. An analysis of ischemic stroke in an urban southern California population. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:619–624. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

12. Norrving B, Löwenhielm P. Epidemiology of stroke in Lund-Orup, Sweden, 1983-85. Acta Neurol Scand. 1988;78:408–413. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

13. Jung KH, Lee SH, Kim BJ, Yu KH, Hong KS, Lee BC, et al. Secular trends in ischemic stroke characteristics in a rapidly developed country results from the Korean Stroke Registry Study (secular trends in Korean stroke) Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2012;5:327–334. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

14. Hong KS, Bang OY, Kang DW, Yu KH, Bae HJ, Lee JS, et al. Stroke statistics in Korea: Part I. Epidemiology and risk factors: a report from the Korean Stroke Society and Clinical Research Center for Stroke. J Stroke. 2013;15:2–20. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

15. Han SW, Nam HS, Kim SH, Lee JY, Lee KY, Heo JH. Frequency and significance of cardiac sources of embolism in the toast classification. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2007;24:463–468. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

16. Page RL, Wilkinson WE, Clair WK, McCarthy EA, Pritchett E. Asymptomatic arrhythmias in patients with symptomatic paroxysmal atrial fibrillation and paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Circulation. 1994;89:224–227. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

17. Strickberger SA, Ip J, Saksena S, Curry K, Bahnson TD, Ziegler PD. Relationship between atrial tachyarrhythmias and symptoms. Heart Rhythm. 2005;2:125–131. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

18. Hart RG, Pearce LA. Current status of stroke risk stratification in patients with atrial fibrillation. Stroke. 2009;40:2607–2610. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

19. Wolf PA, Abbott RD, Kannel WB. Atrial fibrillation as an independent risk factor for stroke: The Framingham Study. Stroke. 1991;22:983–988. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

20. Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, Benjamin EJ, Berry JD, Borden WB, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics--2012 update: a report from the American Heart association. Circulation. 2012;125:e2–e220. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

21. Wang TJ, Massaro JM, Levy D, Vasan RS, Wolf PA, D'Agostino RB, et al. A risk score for predicting stroke or death in individuals with new-onset atrial fibrillation in the community. JAMA. 2003;290:1049–1056. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

22. Go AS, Hylek EM, Phillips KA, Chang Y, Henault LE, Selby JV, et al. Prevalence of diagnosed atrial fibrillation in adults. JAMA. 2001;285:2370–2375. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

23. Murphy NF, Simpson CR, Jhund PS, Stewart S, Kirkpatrick M, Chalmers J, et al. A national survey of the prevalence, incidence, primary care burden and treatment of atrial fibrillation in Scotland. Heart. 2007;93:606–612. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

24. Heeringa J, van der Kuip DA, Hofman A, Kors JA, van Herpen G, Stricker BHC. Prevalence, incidence and lifetime risk of atrial fibrillation: the Rotterdam Study. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:949–953. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

25. Jeong JH. Prevalence of and risk factors for atrial fibrillation in Korean adults older than 40 years. J Korean Med Sci. 2005;20:26–30. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

26. Fuster V, Ryden LE, Cannom DS, Crijins HJ, Curtis AB, Ellenbogen KA, et al. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2001 Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation) Circulation. 2006;114:e257–e354. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

27. Frost L, Engholm G, Johnsen S, Møller H, Husted S. Incident stroke after discharge from the hospital with a diagnosis of atrial fibrillation. Am J Med. 2000;108:36–40. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

28. Frost L, Godtfredsen J, Mortensen L. Age and risk of stroke in atrial fibrillation: evidence for guidelines? Neuroepidemiology. 2007;28:109–115. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

29. Gage BF, Waterman AD, Shannon W, Boechler M, Rich MW, Radford MJ. Validation of clinical classification schemes for predicting stroke. JAMA. 2001;285:2864–2870. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

30. Lip GY, Nieuwlaat R, Pisters R, Lane DA, Crijns HJ. Refining clinical risk stratification for predicting stroke and thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation using a novel risk factor-based approach: the euro heart survey on atrial fibrillation. Chest. 2010;137:263–272. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

31. Pisters R, Lane DA, Nieuwlaat R, de Vos CB, Crijns HJ, Lip GY. A novel user-friendly score (HAS-BLED) to assess 1-year risk of major bleeding in patients with atrial fibrillation: the euro heart survey. Chest. 2010;138:1093–1100. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

32. Camm AJ, Kirchhof P, Lip GY, Schotten U, Savelieva I, Ernst S, et al. Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation the task force for the management of atrial fibrillation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Eur Heart J. 2010;31:2369–2429. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

33. Lee SH, Ryu WS, Roh JK. Cerebral microbleeds are a risk factor for warfarin-related intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology. 2009;72:171–176. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

34. Lovelock CE, Cordonnier C, Naka H, Salman RA-S, Sudlow CL, Sorimachi T, et al. Antithrombotic drug use, cerebral microbleeds, and intracerebral hemorrhage: a systematic review of published and unpublished studies. Stroke. 2010;41:1222–1228. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

35. Aguilar MI, Hart R, Pearce L. Oral anticoagulants versus antiplatelet therapy for preventing stroke in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation and no history of stroke or transient ischemic attacks. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;18:CD006186. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

36. Aguilar MI, Hart R. Oral anticoagulants for preventing stroke in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation and no previous history of stroke or transient ischemic attacks. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;20:CD001927. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

37. Hylek EM, Go AS, Chang Y, Jensvold NG, Henault LE, Selby JV, et al. Effect of intensity of oral anticoagulation on stroke severity and mortality in atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1019–1026. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

38. O'Donnell M, Oczkowski W, Fang J, Kearon C, Silva J, Bradley C, et al. Preadmission antithrombotic treatment and stroke severity in patients with atrial fibrillation and acute ischaemic stroke: an observational study. Lancet Neurol. 2006;5:749–754. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

39. Ay H, Arsava EM, Gungor L, Greer D, Singhal AB, Furie KL, et al. Admission international normalized ratio and acute infarct volume in ischemic stroke. Ann Neurol. 2008;64:499–506. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

40. Agarwal S, Hachamovitch R, Menon V. Current trial-associated outcomes with warfarin in prevention of stroke in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172:623–631. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

41. Paciaroni M, Agnelli G, Ageno W, Caso V, Corea F, Lanari A, et al. Risk factors for cerebral ischemic events in patients with atrial fibrillation on warfarin for stroke prevention. Atherosclerosis. 2010;212:564–566. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

42. Albertsen IE, Rasmussen LH, Overvad TF, Graungaard T, Larsen TB, Lip GY. Risk of stroke or systemic embolism in atrial fibrillation patients treated with warfarin: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke. 2013;44:1329–1336. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

43. Kim D, Chung JW, Kim CK, Ryu WS, Park ES, Lee SH, et al. Impact of CHADS(2) score on neurological severity and long-term outcome in atrial fibrillation-related ischemic stroke. J Clin Neurol. 2012;8:251–258. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

44. Hong H, Kim Y, Cha MJ, Kim J, Lee D, Lee H, et al. Early neurological outcomes according to CHADS2 score in stroke patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation. Eur J Neurol. 2012;19:284–290. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

45. Lin PJ. Reviewing the reality: why we need to change. Eur Heart J. 2005;7:e15–e20. [Google Scholar]

46. Oake N, Fergusson DA, Forster AJ, van Walraven C. Frequency of adverse events in patients with poor anticoagulation: a meta-analysis. CMAJ. 2007;176:1589–1594. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

47. Ahrens I, Lip GY, Peter K. New oral anticoagulant drugs in cardiovascular disease. Thromb Haemost. 2010;104:49–60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

48. Connolly SJ, Ezekowitz MD, Yusuf S, Eikelboom J, Oldgren J, Parekh A, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:1139–1151. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

49. Granger CB, Alexander JH, McMurray JJ, Lopes RD, Hylek EM, Hanna M, et al. Apixaban versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:981–992. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

50. Patel MR, Mahaffey KW, Garg J, Pan G, Singer DE, Hacke W, et al. Rivaroxaban versus warfarin in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:883–891. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

51. Pengo V, Crippa L, Falanga A, Finazzi G, Marongiu F, Palareti G, et al. Questions and answers on the use of dabigatran and perpectives on the use of other new oral anticoagulants in patients with atrial fibrillation. Thromb Haemost. 2011;106:868–876. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

52. Wallentin L, Yusuf S, Ezekowitz MD, Alings M, Flather M, Franzosi MG, et al. Efficacy and safety of dabigatran compared with warfarin at different levels of international normalised ratio control for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation: an analysis of the RE-LY trial. Lancet. 2010;376:975–983. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

53. Cotton BA, McCarthy JJ, Holcomb JB. Acutely injured patients on dabigatran. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:2039–2040. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

54. Hori M, Connolly SJ, Zhu J, Liu LS, Lau CP, Pais P, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin: effects on ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes and bleeding in Asians and non-Asians with atrial fibrillation. Stroke. 2013;44:1891–1896. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

55. Karthikeyan G, Eikelboom JW, Hirsh J. Dabigatran: ready for prime time. Pol Arch Med Wewn. 2010;120:137–142. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

56. Hohnloser SH, Oldgren J, Yang S, Wallentin L, Ezekowitz M, Reilly P, et al. Myocardial ischemic events in patients with atrial fibrillation treated with dabigatran or warfarin in the RE-LY (Randomized Evaluation of Long-Term Anticoagulation Therapy) trial. Circulation. 2012;125:669–676. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

57. Uchino K, Hernandez AV. Dabigatran association with higher risk of acute coronary events: meta-analysis of noninferiority randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172:397–402. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

58. Hankey GJ, Eikelboom JW. Dabigatran etexilate. Circulation. 2011;123:1436–1450. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

59. van Ryn J, Stangier J, Haertter S, Liesenfeld KH, Wienen W, Feuring M, et al. Dabigatran etexilate--a novel, reversible, oral direct thrombin inhibitor: interpretation of coagulation assays and reversal of anticoagulant activity. Thromb Haemost. 2010;103:1116–1127. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

60. Kubitza D, Becka M, Zuehlsdorf M, Mueck W. Effect of food, an antacid, and the H2 antagonist ranitidine on the absorption of BAY 59-7939 (rivaroxaban), an oral, direct factor Xa inhibitor, in healthy subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2006;46:549–558. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

61. Hori M, Matsumoto M, Tanahashi N, Momomura S, Goto S, Izumi T, et al. Safety and efficacy of adjusted dose of rivaroxaban in Japanese patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation: subanalysis of J-ROCKET AF for patients with moderate renal impairment. Circ J. 2013;77:632–638. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

62. Perzborn E, Roehrig S, Straub A, Kubitza D, Mueck W, Laux V. Rivaroxaban: a new oral factor xa inhibitor. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2010;30:376–381. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

63. Wong PC, Pinto DJ, Zhang D. Preclinical discovery of apixaban, a direct and orally bioavailable factor Xa inhibitor. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2011;31:478–492. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

64. Raghavan N, Frost CE, Yu Z, He K, Zhang H, Humphreys WG, et al. Apixaban metabolism and pharmaco*kinetics after oral administration to humans. Drug Metab Dispos. 2009;37:74–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

65. Ezekowitz MD, Connolly S, Parekh A, Reilly PA, Varrone J, Wang S, et al. Rationale and design of RE-LY: randomized evaluation of long-term anticoagulant therapy, warfarin, compared with dabigatran. Am Heart J. 2009;157:805–810. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

66. Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, Schellong S, Eriksson H, Baanstra D, et al. Extended use of dabigatran, warfarin, or placebo in venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:709–718. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

67. Stangier J, Rathgen K, Stähle H, Mazur D. Influence of renal impairment on the pharmaco*kinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral dabigatran etexilate. Clin Pharmaco*kinet. 2010;49:259–268. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

68. Stangier J, Rathgen K, Stähle H, Gansser D, Roth W. The pharmaco*kinetics, pharmacodynamics and tolerability of dabigatran etexilate, a new oral direct thrombin inhibitor, in healthy male subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2007;64:292–303. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

69. Huisman MV, Lip GY, Diener HC, Brueckmann M, van Ryn J, Clemens A. Dabigatran etexilate for stroke prevention in patients with atrial fibrillation: resolving uncertainties in routine practice. Thromb Haemost. 2012;107:838–847. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

70. Turpie AG, Kreutz R, Llau J, Norrving B, Haas S. Management consensus guidance for the use of rivaroxaban--an oral, direct factor Xa inhibitor. Thromb Haemost. 2012;108:876–886. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

71. Schulman S, Crowther MA. How I treat with anticoagulants in 2012: new and old anticoagulants, and when and how to switch. Blood. 2012;119:3016–3023. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

72. Fleming TR, Emerson SS. Evaluating rivaroxaban for nonvalvular atrial fibrillatio--regulatory considerations. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1557–1559. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

73. Samama MM, Martinoli JL, LeFlem L, Guinet C, Plu-Bureau G, Depasse F, et al. Assessment of laboratory assays to measure rivaroxaban-an oral, direct factor Xa inhibitor. Thromb Haemost. 2010;103:815–825. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

74. Mahtani KR, Heneghan CJ, Nunan D, Bankhead C, Keeling D, Ward AM, et al. Optimal loading dose of warfarin for the initiation of oral anticoagulation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;12:CD008685. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

75. Sick PB, Schuler G, Hauptmann KE, Grube E, Yakubov S, Turi ZG, et al. Initial worldwide experience with the WATCHMAN left atrial appendage system for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:1490–1495. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

76. Stone D, Byrne T, Pershad A. Early results with the LARIAT device for left atrial appendage exclusion in patients with atrial fibrillation at high risk for stroke and anticoagulation. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2013 doi: 10.1002/ccd.25065. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

77. Bartus K, Han FT, Bednarek J, Myc J, Kapelak B, Sadowski J, et al. Percutaneous left atrial appendage suture ligation using the LARIAT device in patients with atrial fibrillation: initial clinical experience. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;62:108–118. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

78. Holmes DR, Reddy VY, Turi ZG, Doshi SK, Sievert H, Buchbinder M, et al. Percutaneous closure of the left atrial appendage versus warfarin therapy for prevention of stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation: a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2009;374:534–542. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

79. Reddy VY, Doshi SK, Sievert H, Buchbinder M, Neuzil P, Huber K, et al. Percutaneous left atrial appendage closure for stroke prophylaxis in patients with atrial fibrillation: 2.3-Year Follow-up of the PROTECT AF (Watchman Left Atrial Appendage System for Embolic Protection in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation) Trial. Circulation. 2013;127:720–729. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

80. Van Gelder IC, Hagens VE, Bosker HA, Kingma JH, Kamp O, Kingma T, et al. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with recurrent persistent atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1834–1840. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

81. Opolski G, Torbicki A, Kosior DA, Szulc M, WozĚ B, KoĹ P, et al. Rate control vs rhythm control in patients with nonvalvular persistent atrial fibrillation: the results of the Polish How to Treat Chronic Atrial Fibrillation (HOT CAFE) Study. Chest. 2004;126:476–486. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

82. Sherman DG, Kim SG, Boop BS, Corley SD, DiMarco JP, Hart RG, et al. Occurrence and characteristics of stroke events in the Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Sinus Rhythm Management (AFFIRM) study. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:1185–1191. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

83. de Denus S, Sanoski CA, Carlsson J, Opolski G, Spinler SA. Rate vs rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:258–262. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

84. Kumana CR, Cheung BM, Cheung GT, Ovedal T, Pederson B, Lauder IJ. Rhythm vs. rate control of atrial fibrillation meta-analysed by number needed to treat. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;60:347–354. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

85. Caldeira D, David C, Sampaio C. Rate vs rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation and heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Eur J Intern Med. 2011;22:448–455. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

86. Connolly SJ, Crijns HJ, Torp-Pedersen C, van Eickels M, Gaudin C, Page RL, et al. Analysis of stroke in ATHENA: a placebo-controlled, double-blind, parallel-arm trial to assess the efficacy of dronedarone 400 mg BID for the prevention of cardiovascular hospitalization or death from any cause in patients with atrial fibrillation/atrial flutter. Circulation. 2009;120:1174–1180. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

87. Connolly SJ, Camm AJ, Halperin JL, Joyner C, Alings M, Amerena J, et al. Dronedarone in high-risk permanent atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:2268–2276. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

88. Tsadok MA, Jackevicius CA, Essebag V, Eisenberg MJ, Rahme E, Humphries KH, et al. Rhythm versus rate control therapy and subsequent stroke or transient ischemic attack in patients with atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2012;126:2680–2687. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

89. Guyatt GH, Akl EA, Crowther M, Guttherman DD, Schuunemann HJ. Executive summary: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012;141:7S–47S. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]